Long Point Environmental Folio,Chapter 2 J.G. Nelson and K.L. Wilcox, Editors, 1996

Evolution of the Long Point Area: Geomorphology, Glaciation, Climate, Hydrology and Current Processes*

Ron Stenson

*This chapter is largely derived from Stenson, R. 1993. "The Long Point Area: An Abiotic Perspective" Long Point Environmental Folio Series. Technical Paper #2. Heritage Resources Centre, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario

Long Point exists within a series of environmental systems that include the Lake Erie and Great Lakes basins. The Great Lakes Basin has been completely glaciated at least twice since about 18,000 years ago before present (B.P.) (Figure 1).

Figure 2.1 Glacial Events Leading to the Development of Early Lake Erie (adapted from Stenson, 1993)

The glacial history of southern Ontario has been described by many authors (e.g. Dreimanis and Karrow, 1972; Lewis, 1969; Karrow and Calkin, 1985; Karrow, 1989). The last complete coverage of the basin ended with the ice leaving the southern Great Lakes about 11,000 years ago. Ice did not completely leave the upper lakes until about 9,000 years ago.

As a result of glaciation a sequence of rapidly changing water levels occurred in all of the lakes. As the ice opened different outlets, direction of lake flows changed, sometimes completely reversing. With the removal of the weight of the continental ice sheets, the compressed ground beneath the glaciers rebounded. This tectonic or isostatic release of ice pressure continues today at very slow rates.

The bedrock geology of the basin is very complex, especially in the southern sections (Figure 2). The geological evolution of the bedrock underlying the Great Lakes region is described by numerous authors (e.g. Hough, 1958; Calkin and Feenstra, 1985; Calkin and Barnett, 1990).

Figure 2.2 Geology of the Great Lakes Basin (adpated from Stenson, 1993)

The geomorphology or surface landforms and processes of the basin are even more complex and have been described by many authors, especially Chapman and Putnam (1984). Basin wide variables such as temperature, moisture, basement rock, depth of glacial till, post-glacial processes, and surface deposits all combine to create a complex set of landforms.

The Lake Erie shore can be divided into distinct types, each with its own planning and management problems. The two basic types are:

o rock

o sedimentary

In Lake Erie and the Long Point area sedimentary shores are dominant in contrast to the rock shores of Georgian Bay and Lake Superior. These sedimentary shores can exhibit a variety of characteristics. Of importance on Lake Erie for example, are:

o high bluffs

o low bluffs

o low graded beaches

o dune complexes

o wetlands of various description

These various environments require different management approaches reflecting their different sensitivities to change and their different natural characteristics and values. Processes affecting surface geology are associated with climate, which changes with the seasons and through long time scales. Geologic features are more common on some lakes than others; for example, rock shores are widespread along Georgian Bay and sedimentary bluffs along Lake Erie. Changing conditions have also affected the presence of some features such as wetlands, reducing their extent .

Characteristics of Great Lakes

Table 1 lists the general characteristics of the Great Lakes. Lake Erie is the shallowest of the lakes. It also has the shortest retention time; i.e., the time it takes water entering at the St. Clair River to exit at Niagara. Lake Erie is also home to the second largest human population living along the shores of any of the Great Lakes.

Table 2.1 Great Lakes Physical Paramenters (adapted from Stenson, 1993)

Lake	Superior	Michigan	Huron	Erie	Ontario
Elevation (m above sea level)	183	176	176	173	74
Length (km)	563	494	332	388	311
Breadth (km)	257	190	245	92	85
Drainage Area (km2)	127 700	118 000	134 100	78 000	64 030
Surface Area (km2)	81 100	57 800	59 600	25 700	18 960
Total Basin Area (km2)	209 800	175 000	193 700	103 700	82 990
Lake Volume (km3)	12 100	4 920	3 540	484	1 640
Average Depth (m) AD	145	99	76	21	91
Maximum Depth (m) MD	307	265	223	60	225
AD/MD	0.47	0.27	0.34	0.33	0.4
Shoreline length (km)	4 385	2 633	6 157	1 402	1 146
Retention Time (yr)	191	99	22	2.6	6
Outlet	St. Mary's River	Straits of Mackinac	St. Clair River	Niagara River and Welland Canal	Lawrence River

Table 2 shows that Lake Erie contains over one third of the wetlands in the Great Lakes system. This reflects a variety of conditions including a favorable climate, variable lake levels, shallow sedimentary nearshore zones and a dynamic cycle of erosion and deposition which delivers nutrients and provides niches for wetland plants. However, Snell (1987) estimated that counties bordering Lake Erie have lost between 60 and 100% of their wetlands from 1800 to 1982. Most of this has been due to modification of the shoreline by humans.

Table 2.2 Wetland Types (adapted from Stenson, 1993; data from IJC, 1989)

The Great Lakes exhibit a water balance between inputs such as rain, rivers, overland flow and groundwater and water outputs such as river outlets, evaporation and human use and diversion. Figure 3 shows these values and provides a general cross section of the Great Lakes hydrological system. It can be seen that evaporation plays a major role in Great Lakes hydrology.

Figure 4 illustrates the bathymetry of Lake Erie. It can be seen in long cross section that the west end of the lake is very shallow. The deepest part of the lake is in the east/center, near Long Point. This, combined with the approximately SW-NE orientation of the long axis of the lake, results in wind setup of lake waters during strong, prolonged storms. This setup of water generally occurs from west to east and has been measured at as much as seven meters (IJC, 1989).

Figure 2.4 Lake Erie Depth Contours (adapted from Stenson, 1993)

When considering the bathymetry of the lake it should be noted that:

o The western basin of the lake seldom exceeds 10 m in depth.

o The central basin of the lake reaches a maximum of 30 m but is generally less than 20 m in depth.

o The eastern basin contains the deepest section (~60 m) which exists just off the tip of Long Point.

o The deeper sections of the lake act as sinks for cold water sediments and pollutants.

Lake Erie Water Levels

Figure 5 illustrates Lake Erie water levels above sea level (asl) since the Erie interstade - or period of ice retreat (~15, 500 BP or Before Present). It can be seen that after many fluctuating levels associated with advances and retreats of the position of ice fronts within the basin, the lake basin drained almost completely (Lake Ypsilanti, 13,200 BP ). This was followed by a dramatic rise to Glacial Lake Whittlesey (~13,000 BP), another draining and a slow ~11,000 year rise to around 5 meters above the present level (~2,000 BP) (Coakley and Lewis, 1985). The reason for this rise above present levels is likely that a till moraine - the Fort Erie Moraine - existed across the top of the Niagara River, impounding Lake Erie water until the till was removed to the present bedrock sill (Pengelly, 1990).

Figure 2.5

The physiography, or surface land forms, of the Long Point area are presented in Figure 6. Soils and offshore subsurface deposits are mainly sand with clay and bedrock deposits to the east (Figure 7). Many of the landforms are remnant features that were created under different climatic conditions. Glacial features, for example drumlins, represent the oldest, while coastal features, for example dune-marsh complexes, represent the youngest. This variety of landforms and landform assemblages contributes to the diversity of the natural heritage of the area.

Figure 2.6 The Physiographic Features of the Long Point Area, Lake Erie (adapted from Stenson, 1993)

Figure 2.7 Soils and Surficial Deposits in the Long Point Area (adapted from Stenson, 1993)

Current Processes

The stability of the landforms varies considerably with some landforms remaining relatively unchanged since the last glacial retreat. However, the shoreline area is very dynamic. Bluff recession, or retreat, for most sections or reaches of the shore bluff, typically exceeds 0.5 meters per year (Gelinas and Quigley, 1973) Photo 1. Dune systems located along the sandy shores of Long Point experience less catastrophic change, but shift at a slower, and fairly constant rate, although over-washing by high waters during storms can level and change dunes and associated features (Davidson-Arnott, and Fisher, 1992).

Photo 2.1 Bluff Recession (photographed by Patrick Lawrence)

Although the Point itself is very large (Photo 2) - the largest sandy peninsula or sand spit on the Great Lakes - the feature itself is representative of many other spits in the Great Lakes system.

Photo 2.2 Long Point Sand Spit (Anonynous)

The processes that have shaped Long Point show some similarities to those shaping Rondeau, Point Pelee, or even the Leslie Street spit in Toronto on Lake Ontario. The bluffs show some differences from other bluff areas on Lakes Huron, Ontario, Michigan and Erie, but the processes that formed them, including the depositional environments, are generally the same.

Figure 8 details the stream basins, networks and discharges for the area, including the major lake currents and sediment sinks. The delivery of sediment down the streams has some impact on the sediment regimes of the nearshore zone. Streams that drain the sand plains could potentially deliver significant amounts of sediment to Lake Erie (Ongley, 1976). However, the fine sediments from streams draining the clay plains often are carried away from the nearshore zone and are deposited in sinks offshore (Davidson-Arnott and Stewart, 1987). The streams are relatively stable landscape features, although their natural tendency is to cut down into and move laterally across the surface.

Figure 2.8 Surface Drainage and Nearshore Currents Long Point and Area, Lake Erie (adapted from Stenson, 1993)

Although flooding is more prevalent on the clay plains to the east, extreme discharges associated with channelization and land clearance are absent from the region. Most of the major streams can be seen on aerial photographs as unevenly wooded corridors, that extend from their headwaters to the Lake Erie shoreline. This is a rare feature in southern Ontario landscapes where the lower reaches of many streams have been cleared for agriculture.

Origin of Long Point

Long Point reportedly began as Lake Erie rose to a level at which deposits of the Paris glacial moraine began to be reworked (7600 BP) (Coakley, 1983). Sediments carried by long shore drift from the east and west were deposited in the shallow water environment and began to form the Point (Coakley, 1983). This has proceeded ever since.

It is the nature of many sand spits or peninsulas to be eroded or broken from the mainland during times of high water or during storms (Davidson-Arnott, 1988). These breaks or breaches often close again with renewed deposition over time. It is likely that Long Point was more often an island than a peninsula for most of its history. Laidler (1944) describes historical reports of the separation of the peninsula from the mainland many times since it was first discovered; for example in 1813 the gap was "quite wide", in 1834 - 390 yards, and in 1865 - 1/2 mile.

The present causeway or road linking the Point to the mainland was built in the 1920's and is maintained for residents living in the community of Long Point and visitors to the Point (Barrett, 1977)

Sediment Transport and Deposition

The important things to remember about sediment transport amounts and regional currents shown on Figure 9 are:

o They are only expressed as general lines of direction.

o The actual current system is very complex with many local changes in direction and velocity induced by bottom topography, temperature gradients and surface pressures.

o Currents both erode and deposit sediment depending on their constantly changing character.

o Offshore, as opposed to along shore, currents deliver sediments to sinks away from shallow waters. This reduces the estimated sediment loads of long shore currents that are based on bluff recession rates.

Figure 2.9 Littoral Sediment Movement and Sediment Cross-sections in the Long Point and Turkey Point Area (from Stenson, 1993)

Figure 10 gives a schematic picture of major active inputs to and impacts on the geologic environment, landforms and waters of the Long Point area. Lake currents, air currents, groundwater and rivers transport materials, including chemicals and nutrients, and are essential to the maintenance or sustainability of the natural system.

Figure 2.10 A Schematic Overview of Major Processes, Impacts and Outputs (adapted from Stenson, 1993)

Much of the shoreline from east of Turkey Point to the village of Long Point has been affected by human impacts of one sort or another including shore protection works, marinas, and dredging for water access. The modification of shoreline properties, for example for building construction or to provide for human access to the shore has damaged or destroyed dunes, wetlands, and wildlife habitats, and increased susceptibility to flooding.

Human Uses, Effects and Constraints in the Long Point Area

As Figure 11 shows, human land use and development activities are in conflict with river, groundwater and surface (sheet) flow to the Inner Bay, and long shore currents and erosion. The Inner Bay, and to a lesser extent the Outer Bay, are the sites of unfavourable interactions among natural processes and human activities such as boating, oil and gas extraction, dredging and fishing and their adverse effects on natural systems which support human activity in the long term.

Figure 2.11 Long Point Constraints Imposed by the Abiotic System (adapted from Stenson, 1993)

The key constraints are considered to be:

o Inland constraints due to soil loss to streams from development and agricultural activities, inputs of fertilizers and other chemicals to groundwater and surface flow, and depletion of groundwater resources for irrigation and drinking.

o Shoreline constraints due to fragmentation of natural areas by cumulative impacts from development, interference with natural longshore sediment transport from shore protection, and continued development in wetland areas as well in long-term flooding and erosion hazard zones.

Further details on these natural and human processes and interactions are provided in the following chapters, for example in those on climate change and shoreline flooding and erosion hazards.

Climate

The modern climate of the region is summarized in Table 3 and Figure 12. They show the temperature and precipitation normals, and the average wind magnitude and direction for the Long Point area.

Table 2.3 Climate Data for Stations in the Vicinity of Long Point, Ontario (from Stenson, 1993; source: AES, 1982)

Location	Mean Annual Temperature(degrees Celsius)	Highest Recored Temperature (degrees Celsius)	Lowest Recorded (degrees Celsius)(	Mean Annual Precipitation (mm)	Mean Annual Snow (cm)	Mean Annual frost Free Days
Delhi	7.9	40.6	-31.1	803.1	133.1	148
Simcoe	7.8	40.0	-37.8	748.0	141.5	149
St. Williams	8.1	34.4	-28.9	831.6	142.2	160
Clear Creek	8.1	34.4	-28.9	831.6	142.2	160
Long Point	-	-	-	-	-	165

Figure 2.12 Seasonal Temperature and Precipitation Variations in the Long Point Area (adapted from Stenson, 1993; source: AES, 1982)

Although the data for Long Point proper is incomplete - presumably reflecting the difficulty in reaching the station at the end of the peninsula during the winter - the station record does show that no significant mean temperature differences appear to exist, in relation to inland stations, although lower mean precipitation is measured on Long Point. The predominant wind direction throughout the year is roughly from the west or west-south-west, which happens to be the direction of longest fetch for the lake side of the Point, as indicated by the two lines on the charts (Figure 13).

Figure 2.13 Monthly Mean Wind Roses, Long Point, Ontario (adapted from Stenson, 1993)

The second set of lines (pointing east) indicate the direction of longest fetch affecting the Inner Bay. The highest magnitude winds occur during the winter. However, the spring, fall and summer winds are most responsible for severe wave damage. This is a result of the ice that builds up along the shore during the winter. This ice provides natural protection for the soft sediments composing the shoreline.

Sufficient rainfall always occurs to balance the potential evaporation from the ground, streams and water bodies, and transpiration from plants. This has two implications. The first is that there is usually some excess water running off into steams and lakes, ensuring the associated erosional and depositional processes. The second implication is that theoretically no irrigation should normally be required, although some years can be drier than others and lead to some need for irrigation in drier years.

Irrigation can be witnessed in the study area during the summer. Local residents suggest that the reason for this is that the permeability of the sandy soils i.e. their ability to let water pass to lower layers, robs the surface layers of the water. Since many of the crops grown locally, including tobacco and peanuts, have shallow root systems, irrigation is necessary to ensure that sufficient water is available at the right time for crops. The climate of Long Point is representative of coastal areas within humid, mid-latitude zones. Land and lake breezes moderate temperatures, and large cyclonic weather systems frequently change daily conditions.

Air Quality

The air quality of the Long Point area was monitored by The Nanticoke Management Program (NEMP). This program was initiated in 1978 to co-ordinate a study of the background air quality and subsequent impact of a major industrial development project (steel, coal-burning, power plant, oil refinery) on air quality in the area surrounding Nanticoke , located near Nanticoke Creek east of Port Dover (Dobroff, 1991).

The purpose of the monitoring program was to determine compliance with provincial air quality criteria and also to measure the impact of the industrial development on the local air quality. As part of the NEMP monitoring network, sulfur dioxide, ozone, and oxides of nitrogen were measured at Long Point for the period of 1989-1991.

Results of the NEMP revealed that the air quality in Nanticoke and its surrounding area was very good and reflected a relatively minor impact by the main industries during the period of 1989-1991 (Dobroff, 1991).

Sulfur Dioxide

The annual air quality objective for Ontario is 0.10 ppm. The Long Point area easily met this annual air quality standard. Figure 14 illustrates the historical trend of sulfur dioxide annual averages at Long Point. No daily or hourly exceedences were observed (Dobroff, 1991).

Figure 2.14 Sulphur Dioxide at Long Point (from Dobroff, 1991)

Oxide of Nitrogen

Oxides of nitrogen result from high temperature combustion sources including automobiles and industrial facilities. The most abundant oxides are nitric oxide (NO) which is largely a direct emission of fuel burning and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) which in turn, is mostly an oxidation product developing after contamination is airborne (Dobroff, 1991).

Figure 2.15 Nitrogen Dioxide at Long Point (from Dobroff, 1991)

Objectives exist only for nitrogen dioxide and are based on odour threshold levels (hourly -.2 ppm) and health effects (24-hour -.1 ppm). Adverse effects which can occur at higher measurement levels include vegetation damage, reduced visibility and corrosion of metals. Levels measured at Long Point appear to be very low and well within objectives (Dobroff, 1991) (Figure 15). No NO2 exceedences are known to have occurred to date.

Ozone

Oxidants are products of photochemical reactions involving oxides of nitrogen, hydrocarbons and sunlight. The nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons come mainly from cars and industry. Ozone (O3) is the main oxidant chemical produced. Ozone damages vegetation, including tobacco and tomato crops. The 1-hour objective for ozone is (.08 ppm) which is based on vegetation effects, but ozone is also a respiratory irritant and can have adverse human health effects at more concentrated levels (Dobroff, 1991).

Ground level ozone concentrations follow annual and daily trends. Highest levels occur during the summer (May to September) and the daily maximums usually occur during mid-afternoon. Both patterns occur because ozone production increases with temperature and sunlight.

Ozone concentrations were measured at Long Point and at Simcoe as part of the NEMP monitoring program. In 1991 ozone levels exceeded the hourly objective 179 times at Long Point and 25 times at Simcoe (Dobroff, 1991). Elevated levels generally occurred at the same time at both stations during the summer. Slightly higher concentrations were measured at Long Point during southerly winds, suggesting that higher concentrations were due to some extent to imports from United States (Dobroff, 1991).

Figure 2.16 Ozone at Long Point (from Dobroff, 1991)

Overall, the NEMP concluded that 1991 data in the Nanticoke area revealed that air quality was very good. Pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen showed low levels, well within official guidelines and objectives. Concern has been expressed (Serafin, 1989), however, that:

Air quality monitoring has become routine and ritualistic. Today, action by regulatory agencies seems to be triggered by public complaints or by registering exceedences in air quality standards. The anticipatory and preemptive orientation of initial research and monitoring appears to have virtually disappeared. The implications of this for the capability of the monitoring system to generate early-warning of possible environmental dangers or threats warrants more detailed examination.

Glossary

Aggregate	In civil engineering, the inert material which forms a substancial part of concrete or road metal. It can very in size from broken stone or gravel to sand.
Bathymetric	Pertaining to the depth of a body of water and its measurement (Bathymetry).
Fetch	Refers to the distance over open water that the winds can build waves.
Glacial	The term is used to describe a cold phase during an ice age.
Glacier	An extensive body of land ice which exhibits evidence of downslope movement under the influence of gravity and which forms from the recrystalizaion of neve and firn.
Landscape	An assembly of plants, soils and wildlife, other aspects of the earths surface.
Moraine	An accumulation of heterogeneous rubble meterial, including angular blocks of rock, boulders, pebbels and clay, that has been transported and deposited by a glacier or ice sheet.
Physiography	A term for the combined scientific study of geomorphology, pedology and biogenology.
Spit	A narroe and elongated accumulation of sand or shingle projecting into a large body of water.
Till	Unconsolidated sediments deposited by a glacier
Topography	The surface features of the earth's surface.
Pennsylvanian Mississpian Devonian Silurian Odovician	Refer to mainly sedimentary rocks deposited in ancient seas about 280-500million years ago.

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